Preventing Cancer - Overweight and Obesity

Obesity is a condition of excess body weight measured by the body mass index (BMI). Obesity is caused by an imbalance between caloric intake and expenditure, or, in other words, eating more food than your body can use. It usually results from a diet high in saturated fats, refined carbohydrates and salts, and low levels of physical exercise.

The body mass index is a measure of the body fat in adult Caucasians. To calculate your BMI, you need to know your height in metres and weight in kilograms. Your BMI is calculated by dividing your weight by the square of your height.

The normal BMI range for adult Caucasians is 18–24.9. A person with a BMI in the range 25–29 is classified as?overweight, while one exceeding 30 is classified as obese. When assessing health risks, obese individuals are often further classified as:

Severely obese or class 1 obese (BMI 30–34.9)Morbidly obese or class 2 obese (BMI 35–39.9) Super obese or class 3 obese (BMI > 40.2)

This information will be collected for educational purposes, however it will remain anonymous.

?

Obesity is now considered an epidemic in many Western countries.?In Europe, America and Australia, more than half of all adults and children are overweight or obese. More than 25% of Australian adults are obese, and?about?60%?are classified as overweight or?obese.

A person's lifestyle and background influences their risk of becoming obese. People who have a low level of education, watch a lot of television and/or have low levels of physical activity are more likely to be obese.

There are many health risks associated with being overweight or obese. They include an increased risk of developing a variety of cancers. This risk?rises?with your BMI.

Cancer is a commonly occurring condition of unregulated cell growth. Normal human cells regulate their replication and divide only when new cells are needed (i.e. the number of cells dying and emerging are equal). Cancerous cells, on the other hand, continually replicate without structure or organisation. The excessive cancer cells invade healthy human organs and form a tumour.

Benign tumours are generally not life threatening as they do not invade the surrounding tissues and organs and are not considered cancers. Malignant tumours on the other hand, can move between different sites in the body (e.g. the breast to the lung), and are classified as cancers. Cancers can be classified as low, intermediate and high grade depending on the size of the tumour and degree of similarity between cancerous and normal cells. These influence the number of new cancer cells forming and the chances of successful?treatment.

Some individuals may be predisposed to cancer because of their genes. However, lifestyle factors?and exposure to carcinogens cause most cancers. Cigarette smoking is the behaviour most commonly associated with cancer, although in recent years the associations between obesity and cancer have received increasing attention. Obesity is now the second leading cause of cancer following smoking.

There is evidence that the more your BMI increases, the greater your risk of developing some cancers. For example, the risk of colorectal cancers increases by 7% for every 2 kg/m2 increase in BMI. The cancers associated with obesity include cancers of the:

While it is clear that obesity increases the risk of cancer, scientists are still investigating why this is the case. What is currently known is that the relationships between obesity and cancer are complex and?depend on the type of cancer.

Being obese changes hormone levels in the body. This is thought to underpin the increased risk of?breast, colon, endometrial, kidney and oesophageal cancers. The risk of gallbladder cancer is likely associated with the increased risk of gallstones in obese patients; gastrointestinal conditions associated with obesity (e.g. reflux) are the most likely explanation for obese patients' increased risk of gastrointestinal cancers. Obese individuals are also more susceptible to inflammatory conditions, which are associated with an increased risk of cancer.

The old saying "prevention is better than cure" certainly applies to obesity. While it is likely that obese people who reduce weight will also reduce their cancer risk, scientists are still determining the extent to which this is true.

Currently there is evidence that weight loss has a positive effect on the risk of endometrial and breast cancers. There is also evidence suggesting that losing weight can increase the likelihood of cancer treatment being successful, and reduce the risk of cancer recurring after treatment.

Due to the many known health benefits of weight loss in obese individuals (e.g. reduced risk of diabetes) and the?likely benefit in reducing cancer risk, weight loss is an extremely important goal for overweight and obese people wishing to improve their health.

Once obese, many individuals remain obese for?a long?time. Many diet and exercise interventions have proven effective in promoting weight loss in the short term; however, long term weight loss is more difficult to achieve. This is evidenced by the increasing prevalence of obesity in both developed and developing countries. In Australia, almost 60% of the adult population is either overweight or obese, and the prevalence of obesity is increasing – the?prevalence of obesity was 2.5 times higher in 1999 than in 1980.

Support from health professionals, family and friends

Losing weight often requires professional help. If you are obese and want help developing a weight loss program, talk to you doctor, who can help you or refer you to somebody else who can.

In most cases, health professionals will provide you support and information to help you lose weight. This will include recommending diet and exercise strategies, and helping you monitor how?well they work. It?is important that you limit stress, boredom and frustration when trying to lose weight, as these can cause you to eat unnecessarily.

If you are?having problems sticking to your diet or exercise schedule, a health practitioner can be a good source of support. Make sure you also?have support in your living environment. Keep unhealthy foods out of sight (they're much less tempting when you can't see them) and encourage relatives or friends to?join you in exercising. Eating habits develop over a long period of time and can be difficult to change, so support from friends, family and health professionals is important.

If you are supporting a family member or friend in losing weight, remember to be tactful.

Changing your diet

Consuming too many calories is the main cause of obesity. Developing and maintaining a healthy, balanced diet is key to reducing and maintaining a normal weight (i.e. BMI 18–24.9).

While there are many popular diets which can rapidly reduce weight in the short term, these are generally ineffective in reducing weight in the long term. For sustained weight loss, healthy eating habits must be developed and maintained. One important aspect of ensuring the development of long term healthy eating habits is developing a lifestyle which enables healthy, fresh food to be accessed and prepared for consumption. For many people, accessing fresh food is difficult because they do not have enough money, are too busy to cook it, or?are limited by?their location. If you are too busy to cook involved meals, it may be a good idea to become familiar with some healthy, fast recipes. If money is an issue, you may wish to start a vegetable garden, or learn some new recipes which are less expensive.

There are a few key components of a well balanced diet. As you attempt to lose weight, you should:

Eat more fruit and vegetables: Eat a piece of fruit instead of sweets, chips or other snacks. Try to eat at least 2 pieces of fruit and 5 servings of vegetables or legumes (e.g. beans) per day.Reduce intake of fats, particularly saturated fats: Use vegetable or fish oils instead of animal fats.?Eat lean meat (e.g. chicken breast, fish) instead of fatty meats (e.g. pork). Trim fat off meat. Grill or boil food instead of frying it. Substitute full fat products with low fat (e.g.?dairy). Avoid high fat meals with low nutritional content (e.g. chips, hamburgers, fried chicken).Limit consumption of refined carbohydrates and salt: Limit the amount of sweets, biscuits, cakes and potato chips you consume.?Try dried or fresh fruits and vegetables, wholewheat biscuits and breads, low fat yoghurt, seeds, and legumes as alternative healthy snacks.Eat fresh rather than processed foods: Fresh foods contain more vitamins and minerals than processed foods, and often less calories, so are a vital part of a healthy diet. While fresh, uncooked vegetables are the best source of vitamins and minerals, cooked, frozen and dried fruits and vegetables also provide good sources. Eat from the five food groups: The body requires a range of different nutrients and micronutrients to maintain an optimum metabolic balance.?It is therefore?important to eat from all the food groups.

Exercising

It is generally recommended that individuals engage in moderate exercise (e.g. brisk walking) for at least thirty minutes (preferably for one hour) a day to help maintain a healthy weight. More vigorous exercise (e.g. jogging) several times per week can further reduce cancer risk. Daily exercise can be obtained in a single session or in bits and pieces throughout the day. There are lots of ways to "Find 30" minutes of exercise in little bits throughout the day – you might do some heavy chores around the house, dig the garden or play games with the kids or pets.

If you are obese, the additional weight you carry puts a lot of pressure on your muscles and joints, and vigorous exercise can be dangerous. It is best to start with moderate exercise and increase gradually. Before you start exercising,?speak to a health professional who will be able to advise you which exercises are suitable and how long you should exercise for each day.

Walking is one of the best forms of exercise, so try to fit walking into your daily routine, whether it's to the shops or around the park, up the stairs or for a Sunday outing.?

Depending on where you live and your financial situation, you may wish to visit a gym or swimming pool. You may even want one-on-one support from a personal trainer.?Keep in mind that this is a fairly expensive option, and a friend who will support you and make exercise fun is often just as good.

Treatment with medications

There is a range of medicines which can enhance the benefits of healthy eating and exercise for obese people trying to lose weight. These should only be tried if exercise and diet modifications fail to result in sufficient weight loss. Weight loss medications are effective in addition to, rather than instead of, long term diet and exercise changes.

There are two types of medications that can assist in the treatment of obesity: appetite suppressants (which make you fell less hungry) and fat absorption inhibitors (which reduce the amount of fat your body absorbs). These medicines are only available on prescription in Australia, so talk to your doctor about whether they are suitable for helping you lose weight.

Surgical treatments

Surgery to treat obesity is generally only performed on individuals 18–55 years of age?who have been obese for more than five years and who have a?BMI > 40 kg/m2. As with medications, it is important to remember that surgical treatments are most effective when strict diet and exercise patterns are included.

Although infrequently performed, surgery is a more effective intervention than prescribing medications for reducing the weight of super obese (class 3 obese) individuals.

Obesity increases the risk of cancer, but obesity is a preventable and treatable disease. To reduce the risk of cancer associated with obesity, an individual should maintain a BMI of 18–24.9. To maintain or reduce to a healthy weight it is important to:

Exercise for at least 30 minutes each dayEat lots of fresh food, especially fruits and vegetablesLimit the amount of fat, salt and refined sugar you consume

If you are obese and having difficulty losing weight:

Talk to your doctor about whether or not taking medications will help youTalk to your doctor about whether or not surgery is an appropriate strategy

Remember,?family and friends?can support you?and encourage you to exercise and eat healthy food.

For more information on obesity, health and social issues, and methods of weight loss, as well as some useful tools, see Obesity and Weight Loss.

For more information on living with obesity,?including discussing obesity with friends or loved ones, bullying and obesity in children, obesity and its cost on the workplace and links between obesity and?pain, sexuality, fertility and depression,?see Living with Obesity.
NHMRC. Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Overweight and Obesity in Adults [online]. 2003 [cited 11 July 2008]. Available from URL: http://www.health.gov.au/ internet/ main/ publishing.nsf/ Content/ obesityguidelines-guidelines-adults.htmAustralian Cancer Council. Position statement: Overweight, Obesity and Cancer Prevention [online]. 2008 [cited 11 July 2008]. Available from URL:?http://www.cancer.org.au/ Healthprofessionals/ PositionStatements/ nutritionandphysicalactivity/ obesity.htmWHO Consultancy on Obesity. "Obesity: Preventing an managing the global epidemic: Report of a WHO consultation" WHO Technical Report Series, 1999, 894 [online]. [cited 11 July 2008].?Available from URL: www.who.int/ health_topics/ obesity/ en Cameron JA, Welborn TA, Zimmet PZ. Overweight and obesity in Australia: The 1999-2000 Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle Study. Med J Aust. 2003; 178(9): 427-32.O’dea K, Rowley KG, Brown A. Diabetes in Indigenous Australians: Possible ways forward. Med J Aust. 2007; 186(10): 494-5.Delia D, Buscemi G. Regulation of the cell cycle, cell cycle checkpoints and cancer. In: The Cancer Handbook [Electronic Resource]. A Martin [ed]. London, Wiley. 2007 [cited 11 July 2008]. Available from URL: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/ Pierobin M, Geho D, Belluco C, Liotta L. Invasion and metastasis. In: The Cancer Handbook [Electronic Resource]. A Martin [ed]. London, Wiley. 2007 [cited 11 July 2008]. Available from URL: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/ Greene FL, Page DL, Fleming ID, Fritz AG, Balch CM, Haller DG, Morrow M?[eds]. American Joint Committee on Cancer Staging Manual. 6th ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2002.Obesity and breast cancer prognosis: An expanding body of evidence [Editorial]. Ann Oncol. 2004; 15: 850-1.Stein CJ, Colditz GA. Modifiable risk factors for cancer. Br J Cancer. 2004; 90: 299-303.Moghaddam AA, Woodward M, Huxley R. Obesity and risk of colorectal cancer: A meta-analysis of 31 studies with 70,000 events.?Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007; 16(12): 2533–47.Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ. Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studies cohort of US adults.?New Eng J Med. 2003; 348(17): 1625-39.Larson SC, Wolk A. Obesity and colon and rectal cancer risk: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Am J Clinical Nutr. 2007; 86(3): 556-65.Vainio H, Kaaks R, Bianchini F. Weight control and physical activity in cancer prevention: International evaluation of the evidence. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2002; 11(Suppl 2): S94-100.Schottenfeld D, Beebe Dimmer JL, Advances in cancer epidemiology: Understanding causal mechanisms and the evidence for implementing intervention. Annual Review of Public Health. 2005; 26: 37-60.Chlebowski RT, Aiello E, McTiernan A. Weight loss in breast cancer patient management. J Clin Oncol. 2002; 20: 1128-43.Rock CL, Demark-Wahnefried W. Nutrition and survival after the diagnosis of breast cancer:?A review of the evidence. J Clin Oncol. 2002; 20: 3302-16.Amling CL. The association between obesity and the progression of prostate and renal cell carcinoma. Urol Oncol. 2004; 22: 478-84.Crawford D. Population studies to prevent obesity: Only a few studies attempted with limited success. BMJ. 2002; 325: 728-9.NHMRC. Dietary guidelines for children and adolescents in Australia [online]. 2003 [cited 11 July 2008].?Available from URL: www.nhmrc.gov.au/ publications/ synopses/ _files/ n34.pdf Fletcher GF, Balady G, Blair SN. Statement on exercise: Benefits and recommendations for physical activity programs for all Americans. Circulation. 1996; 94(4): 857-62.Buchwald H, Avidor Y, Braunwald E. Bariatric surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2004; 292: 1724-37.Baxter J. Obesity surgery: Another unmet need [Editorial]. BMJ. 2000; 321: 523-24.

View the original article here

Preventing Cancer - Physical Exercise

?

Physical exercise can be as easy as finding a total of 30 minutes of activity a day. The benefits include a overall healthier body, as well as preventing the development of cancer and other serious diseases. Obesity is usually the outcome of inadequate physical exercise or an unbalanced diet. It is a major issue in western societies and can be rectified by a healthier diet and exercise.

The lack of physical activity over the last few decades has been attributed not only to being over weight or obese, but also to heart disease, and cancer among others. According to the Cancer Council of Australia, lack of activity has been significantly attributed to breast cancer and colon cancer. Even through the research at this point is still inconclusive, physical activity is beneficial for a healthy body.

Any form of physical activity can be beneficial, whether it's walking, cycling, swimming, or jogging. The thing to remember is that it needs to be moderately intensive.

Moderately intensive can be described as being able to talk understandably while exercising, but not sing. The recommendation is that you should do at least 30 minutes of physical activity everyday. This does not all have to be carried out in a thirty minute segment, but can be spilt into a few activities each day.

Something as simple as walking up the stairs, parking the car further away and walking to your destination instead of driving can be considered exercise. Taking up a physical hobby such as rowing, golf or swimming will give you the incentive to get out and get exercising. Once you've taken up the challenge of thirty minutes of exercise each day, you will notice a change in general well being, including stress, energy levels and happiness.

As well as thirty minutes daily, weekly you should also participate in some vigorous exercise at least twice a week. This is the kind of exercise where you work up a sweat, and you breathe harder. Some examples of this form of exercise include going for a jog, or going to the gym. It involves pushing your body harder to produce a more intense workout. Remember that vigorous exercise requires a warm up and cool down period to prevent injury or muscle cramping.

The benefits of exercise to the body are numerous. Exercise builds muscle strength, including strenghtening your health and lungs. Muscle strength prevents injury, strain and also aids in later life. It also builds bone density, which means they are less likely to break in a trauma of some kind, and you are less likely to develop debilitating diseases such as osteoporosis. Exercise lowers your body fat, keeping your weight in control and preventing such diseases as heart disease. Exercising also improves your stress levels and energy. Exercising also produces an endorphin rush, the hormone that make you feel happy and hence reduces stress levels.

While exercising is great for your body it is also important not to over exercise. Exercise can become complusive when the reasoning behind it is misplaced. For example, exercise definately keeps your weight healthy, but if the expectation is to have the perfect body, exercise can become complusive and addictive. The reality is your weight should be what is healthy for your body type and build. Exercise and severe dieting can lead to conditions such as buliema and anorexia, serious psychological conditions that have devestating effects. The pressure and desire to win, particularly in an event that requires bodily strength, can lead to someone over exercising.

A way to determine if you or someone else is over exercising is to ask if training is taking over various parts of daily life, like would you rather train then spend time with family and friends, or do you get upset if you miss a training time? If you find yourself tired due to the fact you are training a majority of the time, then it is time to reassess your exercising habits. Some individuals do exercise more than average such as athletes, but the important thing to remember is just as the body requires exercise, so it requires rest.

If you or someone you know maybe over exercising, it is very important to seek help before this becomes a major problem as over exercising can cause serious, irrepairable damage to the body. Help is available in many different forms, your friends or family, teacher, councellor, doctor, helpline or association.

For more information, visit: The National Exercise Guide Eating Disorders - Anorexia

View the original article here

Tips for Preventing Colds and Flus

Winter brings with it the dreaded season for colds and flus. Feeling lousy, losing days?from work and counting?the costs of?health care?give us good reasons to prepare ourselves in order to prevent becoming infected this winter. For most people, colds and flus are self-limiting and resolve themselves within a few days. But for some people, particularly those aged over 65, there is a high risk of developing flu-related complications that could be fatal. Thus, it is important to be proactive by following some simple common sense precautions to reduce the risk of acquiring an infection.

The common cold and flu are widespread infections of the upper respiratory tract caused by viruses. There are over 200 viruses that can cause colds. The most common one?is the rhinovirus, followed by the corona virus and the respiratory syncytial virus. The large number of viruses capable of causing colds explains why we repeatedly catch colds.

Influenza or the flu is caused by the influenza virus, of which there are three major types - A, B and C. This virus is able to mutate and change its structure, giving rise to different strains every year. The body does not have any immunity to the new strain, so you can be repeatedly infected, even if you had a flu vaccine the year before.

Colds and flus are highly contagious. They can be passed from person to person by inhaling infected air droplets created from sneezing or coughing, or by hand contact or contact with surfaces?that may have been touched by an infected individual (e.g.?door knobs, pens and phones).

Colds and flus are usually not serious unless you develop complications. Some complications that may develop in high risk individuals include ear infections, pneumococcal pneumonia, sinusitis and bronchitis. Pneumonia is the most common and serious complication. It can be fatal for older people, or people with chronic illnesses. A?generally healthy person is less likely to catch a cold or flu.?If they do catch one, they will be better?able to fight it.

Those most vulnerable to colds and flus are the very young, the very old, and people who smoke. Children are more vulnerable to the common cold?than adults and can catch 7-10 colds per year.?Adults get about 2-5 colds?per year. This is due to children’s underdeveloped immune systems?and lack of hygiene habits.?It is therefore?important that children be taught how to minimise their chances of becoming infected.

Although winter is associated with more colds, the cold weather does not actually?cause colds. Rather, the increased number of colds is caused by many other factors associated with the onset of winter. During the colder months, people spend more time indoors in close contact with others, thereby increasing the chance of acquiring an infection. Seasonal changes in humidity also affect the prevalence of colds.?The viruses responsible for causing colds survive better in low humidity conditions, such as those created by central heating. In addition, cold weather dries out the inside lining of the nose,?an important natural defence barrier to infection, and makes it prone to cracking, thus?increasing your vulnerability to infection.

There are many other factors that affect whether you will catch a cold or flu. Being stressed can even increase your susceptibility to infection with a cold.

Colds

Both colds and flus cause inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth and throat.?They have very similar symptoms, such as:

Colds?are characterised by a gradual onset, beginning with a feeling of tiredness, a runny nose and sneezing. Muscle aches, sore throat, headaches and a mild fever may also be experienced. The severity of symptoms peaks 2-3 days after infection and lasts 7-10 days.?However, some symptoms may persist for several weeks.

The primary route for infection with cold viruses is by touching the eyes and nose with contaminated hands. Rhinoviruses can survive on hands and surfaces for several hours. The other route of infection is by inhaling aerosols containing infected virus particles released after an infected individual has sneezed or coughed.

Flus

A flu is a more severe infection. It develops suddenly and is associated with:

HeadacheFeverChills and sweatsDry coughLoss of appetiteBody achesGeneral feeling of weakness??

Congestion, sore throat and eye pain may also be experienced.?Diarrhoea and vomiting?are common in children. The flu lasts much longer than a cold.?In some cases, it?may lead to serious complications such as pneumonia.

As there are no cures, the key to avoid catching a cold or flu is prevention. There are several measures you can take to minimise your exposure to the viruses responsible for colds and flus, including behavioural, environmental and pharmacological strategies.

Limit exposure

1. Wash your hands

Maintaining strict hand hygiene is vitally important during the cold and flu season. Colds and flus can be spread via aerosol droplets created by coughing and sneezing, and by?touching surfaces that infected individuals may have been in contact with. The virus?commonly enters your body when you touch your nose, mouth or eyes with infected hands.

It is best to make a habit of washing hands for at least 10-15 seconds?in warm soapy water, especially after coughing or sneezing and before eating.?Teach children to?wash their hands?as well. If you do not have access to water, you can use an alcohol-based disinfectant hand gel with at least 60% alcohol content.

2. Avoid crowds and sick people

Sometimes it is difficult to?identify sick people, as people who are infectious may not have any symptoms in the early stages of their illness. Try to avoid people who you know have a cold or flu, and stay away from crowded areas during flu season to reduce your chance of infection. This is particularly important for infants in the first few months of life.

3. Disinfect surfaces

Keep household surfaces clean (e.g. door knobs, switches and telephones) as they can harbour viruses for several hours.?Wipe and disinfect these surfaces regularly.Also use separate towels or paper towels in kitchens and bathrooms for infected individuals. Throw tissues out immediately after use as they can spread the virus to surfaces.

Practice healthy habits

If you are healthy, your immune system is stronger and better able to fight infection. You can enhance your body’s natural resistance mechanisms by eating well, remaining physically active despite the cold weather, and getting enough sleep.

1. Eat and sleep well

Eating a balanced diet provides your body with the nutrients and vitamins it needs to help the immune system fight infection.Eat foods containing phytochemicals such as dark green, red and yellow fruit and vegetables. Eating a tub of yoghurt daily can reduce your chances of catching a cold by 25%.

Getting plenty of sleep also helps boost the functioning of your immune system.

2. Reduce stress

People who are under stress tend to have weakened immune systems,?so are more likely to get sick?and experience more severe symptoms. In addition, people who are more sociable are?less likely to get sick.If you are run down or stressed, try to incorporate some relaxation techniques into your life. If you remain relaxed, your?immune system produces more of the chemicals needed to fight infection (interleukins).

3. Stop smoking

Smokers are more prone to respiratory illness than non-smokers, and experience more severe and frequent colds. This is because cigarette smoke dries out nasal passages and paralyzes the hairs that line the mucous membranes, which normally act to sweep viruses out of the nasal passages.Non-smokers should take care to avoid second-hand smoke.

4. Exercise regularly

Regular exercise, particularly cardiovascular exercise, helps keeps you fit and gives your immune system a boost, enabling it to function more effectively.Exercise can increase the number of virus-killing cells in your body. It may not prevent all infections, but it can speed up recovery and reduce the intensity of symptoms.

However, heavy exercise is not recommended.?Don’t overdo it if you are suffering from a cold or flu, as this can exacerbate your illness. Moderate exercise?(e.g. walking) can help alleviate some of the cold symptoms.

5. Regulate humidity

Other ways to avoid catching a cold?are to ensure your house is not overheated, and to increase the humidity by?using cool mist humidifiers or vaporisers. The low humidity created by heating dries out the mucous membranes of the nasal passages, making you more vulnerable to?infection. Low humidity also provides an environment that encourages viruses to survive and thrive.?Make sure?you?go out and get fresh air to counteract the drying effects of indoor heating.

Get a flu vaccination

The flu vaccine (flu shot) provides one of the best way to protect against the flu and is particularly important for people who?are at a?high risk of developing flu-related complications (e.g.?infants, pregnant women, people over 65, or people with chronic health conditions such as asthma, diabetes or heart disease). The large number of viruses capable of causing colds means that there are no vaccines for them. But there are flu vaccines available (e.g. Fluvax).

The flu vaccine is only effective for one year because of the way the influenza virus is able to mutate. Thus, a new vaccine is created every flu season and you must be immunised every year in order to stay protected. The flu vaccine is 70-90% effective, depending on the intensity and length of the flu season.

InAustralia, the flu season begins around May and continues until September. The flu vaccine should be administered in March/April to give it enough time to work before the onset of winter.

The influenza vaccine is made from the three influenza viruses that have been inactivated, meaning that they do not cause infection like live particles of the virus in the environment. This vaccine is given in the arm. It enables the body to develop antibodies to the influenza virus in case of infection. It can be used in anyone older than 6 months, as well as anyone with chronic medical conditions.

The protective effect of the vaccine is more efficient if you have previously had the flu or a flu vaccine. Children under nine years who have not received a vaccination before?should get two doses of the vaccine one month apart.

If you have had the flu vaccine and still get the flu, you will have a reduced risk of developing any flu-related complications (e.g.?pneumonia, stroke and heart attack). This is particularly important for older people who are most vulnerable.

Who should get a flu shot?

Most people are able to obtain a flu shot.?There are certain groups of people who are highly susceptible to complications and?are therefore strongly?advised to?get vaccinated. In Australia, the?flu vaccine is free of charge for people aged over 65, and for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders (ATSIs) aged over 50 years or aged 15-49 years with a chronic illness.When vaccine supplies are limited, then vaccines may be?restricted to high priority groups.?

In Australia, immunisation is recommended for:

All adults aged over 65 yearsInfants and children aged from 6 months to 4 yearsChildren on long term aspirin therapyPregnant women (especially those who are in their second or third trimester between June and October)Anyone with a chronic medical condition (e.g.?asthma, diabetes or?heart, kidney or lung disease)Anyone with a weakened immune system or who is undergoing immunosuppressive treatmentsResidents of nursing homes or long term care facilitiesChild care workers, health care workers, or anyone living with or looking after someone at high risk of developing flu-related complicationsAnyone visiting parts of the world where influenza is circulating

Who should not be vaccinated

People who have had an allergic reaction to a flu vaccine in the pastPeople with allergies to chicken eggs (the vaccine is cultivated in chicken eggs)Anyone who has developed Guillain-Barre syndrome within six weeks of receiving the vaccine in the pastChildren under 6 months of agePeople suffering from an illness with a fever

If you do get sick, it is important that you try not to infect others at home and at work, especially if you live or work with people in the high risk categories. Some tips to prevent infecting others include:

Stay away from work or school until you get better.Cover your?nose and mouth with a tissue when you cough and sneeze. Discard the tissue after use.Wash your hands with soap and water for at least 10 seconds after coughing, sneezing or blowing?your?nose, and before touching other people or objects that others may touch.If you see your doctor, call ahead so they can put you in a separate waiting area. Ask for a mask if you are coughing and have to wait near others.

Get plenty of rest and stay hydrated

Adequate rest and fluid intake?is important for ensuring a speedy recovery from the flu.Maintaining hydration ensures that the body is functioning and can defend itself more effectively. Fluids also help loosen mucous and alleviate congestion, so try to drink lots of fluids?(e.g. water, juices and soups).Avoid caffeinated drinks and alcohol, as they are dehydrating.Alcohol also affects liver function, reducing the body’s ability to eliminate viruses.

Eating chicken soup, previously thought to be merely?an old wives' tale, has?been shown to have a mild anti-inflammatory effect that also?helps clear mucous and reduce congestion.

Many people believe that milk and dairy products increase congestion and should be avoided; however, this is not the case.?Dairy products should not been withdrawn from the diet.

To soothe a sore throat, try gargling salty water.

Choose medicines that are appropriate for your symptoms

It is better to choose medicine for a specific symptom rather than using something that treats everything, even symptoms you don’t have. This way, you can avoid side effects associated with drugs you do not need, and?can lower the cost of medicines.

Painkillers such as paracetamol or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can help with fever, headaches, sore throat and body aches.Aspirin should not be given to teenagers or children, as it is associated with Reye’s syndrome. Reye’s syndrome?causes drowsiness and vomiting, and can lead to brain damage and death.

Stuffy and runny noses are the most common symptoms of a cold. Nasal decongestants can be used by both adults and children.For infants and children, use a bulb syringe to gently suction the nasal passages, then apply saline nasal drops to clear the nose and reduce congestion. Using a humidifier in the home can also help relieve a stuffy nose. Make sure it is kept clean to avoid the build up of mould.

Antihistamines are effective for sneezes and?runny noses.?For?coughs, take something containing a cough suppressant.

Natural remedies

Vitamin C, zinc and Echinacea are used by many people to prevent and treat colds and flus. They are generally safe to take,?although their health benefits are not yet definitively proven.

Vitamin C:

Vitamin C appears to reduce the severity and duration of symptoms, but does not prevent colds. It is considered safe to use, except in very high doses.

Echinacea:?

Some studies suggest that Echinacea may be effective in the early treatment of cold and flu, however, there are also numerous studies showing no benefit from Echinacea use

Zinc:?

Zinc is known to have antiviral properties.Zinc lozenges appear to be effective for adults, but have the opposite effect on children.Zinc nasal sprays can help reduce the severity of symptoms, but have no effect on the duration of a cold.

Say no to antibiotics

Antibiotics are not a solution for either colds or flus. Many people still mistakenly believe that antibiotics can help treat these infections. However, antibiotics only work for bacterial infections, not viruses.

The inappropriate use of antibiotics contributes to the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, consequently making antibiotics ineffective in treating other infections you may acquire.

The only time antibiotics should be given is if it is suspected that you have a bacterial infection which has been caused by a complication associated with the flu (e.g.?an ear infection, bronchitis or pneumonia).

Antiviral medications for influenza

There are two antiviral?medicines which can help treat and prevent infuenza A and B infection. Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and zanamivir (Relenza) can help reduce the?duration of illness and severity of symptoms if taken within 48 hours of the first symptoms.These antiviral are known as neuraminidase inhibitors. They work by preventing the virus from spreading inside the body.

Oseltamivir and zanamivir?are effective for both human and bird (avian) flu, and can be obtained by prescription from your doctor. However, they are often in short supply.?They can cause side effects such as lightheadedness, vomiting, nausea, loss of appetite and breathing problems.

Most colds and flus can be left to run their course and can be managed by following the above tips. You don’t need to see a doctor unless your symptoms are getting worse, or you are not getting any better after a week. Some warning signs to look out for include:

Persistent fever for three or more daysBad cough or sore throat that has lasted for more than ten daysShortness of breath or pain from a sinus infectionEaracheChest painChanges in mucous consistency (e.g.?thick or yellow-green mucous)

Another sign is if you feel better for a little while, then feel worse again with a high fever or chest pain.?

In children, parents should look out for:

DrowsinessRefusal to eatWheezinessCryingHolding the ears or stomach

For more information on influenza, types of influenza and treatments and tips?for preventing influenza, see Flu.

Hendley JO. Epidemiology, pathogenesis and treatment of the common cold. Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases 1998; 9(1): 50-5. [Abstract]Mayo Clinic. Influenza (Flu) [online]. 21 September 2007 [cited 6 June 2011]. Available from: [URL Link]Eccles R. Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza. Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2005; 5: 718-25. [Abstract]Meadows M. Beat the winter bugs: How to hold your own against colds and flu. FDA Consumer. 2001; 35(6):11-18. [Citation]Wat D. The common cold:?A review of the literature. European Journal of Internal Medicine. 2004; 15: 79-88. [Abstract]Centers for Disease Control. Seasonal flu: Good health habits for prevention [online]. 6 October 2006 [cited 6 June 2011]. Available from: [URL Link] ?Mayo Clinic. Flu shot: Your best shot for avoiding influenza [online].?9 April 2008 [cited 6 June 2011]. Available from: [URL Link]Universityof Pennsylvania. Office of Health Education. 12 tips to prevent the flu [online]. 2006 [cited 25 July 2008]. Available from?[URL Link]Covington TR, Henkin R, Miller S, Sassetti M, Wright W. Treating the common cold: An expert panel consensus recommendation for primary care clinicians. Guidelines.?2004;?5(4): 1-16 [online]. Illinois Academy of Family Physicians. October 2004 [cited 6 June 2011]. Available from: [URL Link]NSW Fact sheet: Medications to treat or prevent influenza [online]. New South Wales Government Department of Health.?6 November 2006 [cited 6 June 2011]. Available from: [URL Link]Media release: Common colds need common sense, they don’t need antibiotics [online]. 20 July 2006. [cited 6 June 2011] National Prescribing Service Limited. Available from: [URL Link]Department of Health and Ageing. The Australian Immunisation Handbook: Influenza [online]. Commonwealth of Australia.?8 April 2008 [cited 6 June 2011]. Available from: [URL Link]Cohen S, Tyrrell DA, Russell MA, et al. Smoking, alcohol consumption, and susceptibility to the common cold. Am J Public Health. 1993;83(9):1277-83. [Abstract]South Australia Department of Health. Flu vaccine Frequently Asked Questions. 2011. [cited June 6 2011]. Available from: [URL Link]Department of Health and Environmental Control South Carolina. Sore Throat- Parent Information for School age Children. 2008. [cited June 6 2011] Available from: [URL Link]Universityof MarylandMedical Centre. Influenza. 2009. [cited June 6 2011] Available from: [URL Link]Dickenstein JB, Moldofsky H. Sleep, cytokines and immune function. Sleep Med Rev. 1999; 3(3): 219-28. [Abstract]National Centre for Alternative and Complementary Medicine. Colds and Flu and CAM- At a glance. 2011. [cited 6 june 2011] Available from: [URL Link]

View the original article here